Which theory posits that behavior is learned through observation and imitation, with self-efficacy a central construct?

• A. B.F. Skinner
• B. Alfred Adler
• C. Albert Bandura
• D. John Holland

Answer: (C)

Learning through watching others and then imitating their behavior, with beliefs about one’s own abilities shaping motivation and persistence, is the hallmark here. This idea comes from Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, which says people acquire new behaviors by observing models, vicarious learning, and then choosing to imitate based on expected outcomes and their self-efficacy—their belief in their capacity to succeed at a task. Self-efficacy guides how much effort we put in, how long we persist, and how we cope with obstacles. For example, a student who watches a peer perform a skill and believes they can replicate it is more likely to try, persist, and improve, compared to someone who doubts their ability.

This contrasts with Skinner’s operant conditioning, which emphasizes learning from the consequences of actions rather than from observation and modeling, and does not center self-efficacy. Adler focuses on feelings of inferiority and social interest, not observational learning. Holland’s theory is about fit between personality types and work environments, not learning through imitation or self-efficacy.